The escalating thermal demands of high-performance computing (HPC) have rendered traditional air-cooling methodologies inadequate, necessitating a paradigm shift toward liquid-based solutions. This review systematically examines the evolution of computer cooling systems, evaluating the limitations of air cooling (low thermal conductivity, 40% data centre power usage) and assessing three liquid cooling categories: direct-to-chip, immersion, and hybrid systems. Key advancements include microchannel heat sink optimisation, nanofluid integration, and phase-change mechanisms. Direct-to-chip cooling manages >400W TDP, while immersion cooling offers superior thermal efficiency. Hybrid configurations provide transitional pathways for existing facilities. A critical research gap is the absence of standardised comparative performance models. This review establishes the foundation for a comprehensive simulation model to optimise liquid cooling system design for next generation exascale computing environments.
Keywords: High-performance computing, liquid cooling, thermal management, immersion cooling, direct-to-chip cooling.